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NEUTRON-NEUTRON INTERACTION
By Prof. L. Kaliambos (Natural Philosopher in New Energy) July 16 , 2015 After the discovery of charged quarks Up and Down by Gell-Mann and Zweig I published my paper "Nuclear structure is governed by the fundamental laws of.electromagnetism" (2003) which led to my discovery of the new structure of protons and neutrons given by proton = + 5d + 4u = 288 quarks = mass of 1836.15 electrons neutron = + 4u + 8d = 288 quarks = mass of 1838,68 electrons Here one sees that the so-called strong nuclear force is the result of electromagnetic interactions between considerable charge distributions in nucleons due to 9 extra charged quarks in proton and to 12 extra charged quarks in neutron Historically, under the discovery of the assumed uncharged neutron by Chadwick (1932) theoretical physicists abandoned the well-established electromagnetic laws in favor of wrong nuclear theories and models which cannot lead to the nuclear force and structure. So despite the enormous success of the Bohr model (1913) and the Schrodinger equation in three dimensions.(1926) based on the well-established laws of electromagnetism neither was able to reveal the simplest structures of deuteron. For example the great physicists Heisenberg (1932) and Yukawa (1935) under the invalid relativity (EXPERIMENTS REJECTING EINSTEIN) and the assumptions of the uncharged neutron developed wrong theories of the so-called strong interaction, which cannot lead to the nuclear structure of the simplest deuterium. Moreover after the discovery of the charged quarks (1964) Gell-Mann in 1973 under the false theories of relativity and of Yukawa did not use the well-established charge-charge interaction of the discovered charged quarks but he tried to interpret the wrong strong interaction by developing his theory of quantum chromodynamics. Note that he postulated the strange “color forces” between hypothetical massless gluons which cannot exist in accordance with my DISCOVERY OF PHOTON MASS . Under this physics crisis I analyzed carefully the magnetic moments of nucleons and I discovered 9 charged quarks in proton and 12 ones in neutron able to give the simplest nuclear structures of the deuterium and other nuclei by reviving the well-established laws of electromagnetism. (See my DISCOVERY OF QUARKS IN PROTON AND NEUTRON ) . It is of interest to note that in my paper of 2003 I showed that two neutrons and two protons at very short distances exert repulsive forces of short range which in some symmetrical cases are weaker than the very strong electromagnetic attractions of proton-neutron interactions. For example in Helium nucleus the very strong attractive electromagnetic forces of the proton-neutron interactions overcome such repulsive forces and lead to the nuclear structure. (See my STRUCTURE OF HELIUM ISOTOPES). Nevertheless today many nuclear physicists believe that when two protons are very close together an unknown attractive nuclear force is dominant and when they are far apart it is the well known electrostatic repulsive force which is dominant at heavy nuclei. On the other hand under the invalid hypothesis of “Charge Independence” it is believed incorrectly that the systems like proton-proton and neutron-neutron exert unknown nuclear attractions. In fact, I discovered that in both cases the protons and the neutrons at short distances interact electromagnetically giving repulsive forces of short range. Obviously, most nuclei are stable and thus there must exist electromagnetic attractive forces proton-neutron systems which are stronger than the repulsions of proton-proton and neutron-neutron interactions. Within the nucleus, where the protons and neutrons are very close together, the electromagnetic nuclear force of short range dominates the repulsive Coulomb force between proton-proton and neutron-neutron interactions and holds the nucleus together like the forces of ionic crystals. While in heavy nuclei the long ranged repulsive proton-proton forces overcome the short ranged forces of proton-neutron attractions. On the other hand in neutron stars the gravitational force of long range overcomes the repulsive neutron-neutron force of short range, Also it is unfortunate that physicists today influenced by the invalid relativity believe incorrectly that the binding energy of the nucleus is due to the fallacious idea that the mass defect turns into the energy. In fact , I discovered that the binding energy between a proton and a neutron during the electromagnetic interaction turns into the energy of generated photons and the so-called mass defect turns into the mass of the photon m = hν/c2 (See my E = mc2 IS CONFUSING and my PHOTON-MATTER INTERACTION in my FUNDAMENTAL PHYSICS CONCEPTS). It is observed that the mass of any nucleus is always less than the sum of the masses of the individual constituent nucleons which make it up. On the other hand in order to separate the nucleons, energy must be supplied to the nucleus. This is usually accomplished by bombarding the nucleus with high energy particles (atom smashing). It is well known that too many protons relative to the number of neutrons in a nuclide results in instability. This is explained by the mutual electrostatic repulsion of protons beyond a certain distance. However today many physicists hypothesize that there is a strong force attraction between protons but this attraction drops off rapidly with separation distance. In fact, for larger nuclei some of the protons are necessarily at distances from each other where the electrostatic repulsion overwhelms the short-ranged strong force attraction of proton-neutron systems Therefore for stability a nuclide needs an excess of neutrons to offset the electrostatic repulsion of the protons. This is all perfectly plausible but what accounts for the fact that too many neutrons compared to the number of protons also results in instability? This is one element of the evidence that neutrons repel each other. In my paper NUCLEAR STRUCTURE IS GOVERNED BY THE FUNDAMENTAL LAWS OF ELECTROMAGNETISM presented also at the 12th Symposium of the Hellenic nuclear physics society ( NCSR “Demoktitos” 2002) I described carefully the electromagnetic attraction of short range of the proton -neutron system which overcomes the proton-proton repulsions and neutron-neutron repulsions So it is responsible for the binding energies in nuclei. However In heavy nucley the proton-proton repulsions of long range overcome the short-ranged proton-neutron attractions and lead to the decay. Unfortunately when I presented my DISCOVERY OF NUCLEAR FORCE AND STRUCTURE by reviving the abandoned laws of electromagnetism some elderly professors influenced by the invalid relativity abandoned the auditorium. Nevertheless after some years from the publication of the paper in Ind. J. Th. Phys. (2003) physicists today around the world are able to know why the large number of my integral equations reveal the nuclear structure. UNDER THE INFLUENCE OF THE QUALITATIVE APPROACH OF PAULI’S PRINCIPLE HEISENBERG EXPLANED INCORRECTLY THE PARALLEL SPIN OF DEUTERON STRUCTURE Unfortunately under the influence of the qualitative approaches of the so-called Pauli principle of two spinning electrons of opposite spin (1925), Heisenberg in 1932 for the explanation of the simple proton-neutron system proposed a fallacious isospin T since the parallel spin (S=1) of deuteron is forbidden by the “exclusion principle” characterizing the coupling of two electrons with antiparallel spin (S=0). Historically after the discovery of the assumed uncharged neutron which led to the abandonment of the well-established laws of electromagnetism theoretical physicists tried to understand the nuclear strong force; it was one of the principal problems in physics in the mid-twentieth century. About 1932, Heisenberg proposed that the proton and neutron might really be two states of the same particle, now called the nucleon. It is well-known that in atoms of two electrons despite the discovery of the electron spin which gives a peripheral velocity greater than the speed of light, Pauli under the influence of the invalid relativity for the explanation of paired electrons proposed his “exclusion principle” which cannot be applicable in the simplest nuclear structure of deuterium, because the binding energy of the p-n interaction occurs when the spin is parallel (S =1). In fact, the peripheral velocity (u>>c) of the opposite spin of two electrons gives stronger magnetic attraction than the electric repulsion while the opposite spin of two deuterons gives a repulsive electromagnetic force because the peripheral velocity of a spinning neutron is less than the speed of light. ( See my DISCOVERY OF TWO-ELECTRON ATOMS ). Since the above qualitative approach of Pauli describes two different states of the same particle (electron) then it seemed convenient for these reasons to consider the neutron and the proton as two states of the same entity - the nucleon. It should be stressed, however, that the arguments described above are misleading in their simplicity of the proton-neutron system with parallel spin. In fact, after my discovery of extra quarks in nucleons according to the application of electromagnetic laws the negative charge of - Qn = -8e/3 distributed along the periphery of neutron interacts electromagnetically with the positive charge of +Q = +8e/3 distributed along the periphery of the spinning proton for giving the parallel spin (S = 1) of the simple n-p system. However in the absence of the detailed structure of nucleons Heisenberg proposed the fallacious isospin T. One wrong application of the assumed generalized Pauli principle could explain the experiments of proton-proton (p-p) and neutron-neutron ( n-n ) systems. For example for T =1 one observes that the p-p and n-n systems have opposite spin ( S=0 ), while for T = 0 the p-n system operates with parallel spin (S=1). In fact, two protons and two neutron of opposite spin cannot make a pair because the spin of nucleons gives a peripheral velocity smaller than the speed of light. Under this condition the electric repulsion Fe is greater than the magnetic attraction. Thus the net electromagnetic force Fpp or Fnn is a repulsive force. Whereas in the simple proton-neutron system the net electromagnetic force Fpn is an attractive force because the magnetic attraction of parallel spin contributes to the total attraction. CONCLUSIONS It is indeed unfortunate that the discovery of the assumed uncharged neutron led to the abandonment of electromagnetic laws in favor of wrong theories of nuclear force and nuclear structure. Thus, after my DISCOVERY OF QUARKS IN PROTON AND NEUTRON the application of the well-established electromagnetic laws on the charges of extra 9 charged quarks in proton and 12 ones in neutron led to the correct structure of deuteron The deuteron is a stable p-n system composed of a proton and a neutron with parallel spin along the radial direction giving a binding energy of 2.2246 MeV. It's stability is remarkable since the free neutron is unstable, undergoing beta decay with a halflife of 10.3 minutes. Especially the deuteron binding energy of -2.2246 MeV implies that it is stable. The free neutron yields an energy of 1.29 MeV in beta decay, but the 2.2246 MeV binding energy of the deuteron prevents its decay. On the other hand in the stable helium nucleus both proton-proton and neutron-neutron electromagnetic repulsions of short range cannot overcome the proton-neutron electromagnetic attaractions. Therefore the so-called "Charge Independence Hypotheisis" is invalid. Note that according to this hypothesis two neutrons and two protons attract with an unknown nuclear force. In fact, I discovered that the proton-proton and neutron-neutron systems at very short distances give always electromagnetic forces of repulsion of short range. Note that in neutron stars the long-ranged gravitational forces overcome the short-ranged neutron-neutron electromagnetic repulsions. Category:Fundamental physics concepts